The Unfinished Quest: Decoding the Lumbee Identity Debate
In the heart of southeastern North Carolina lies Robeson County, a place where the red earth tells stories of resilience, struggle, and an identity forged in the crucible of American history. It is home to the Lumbee Tribe, a people recognized by the state of North Carolina as an Indigenous nation, yet trapped in a decades-long struggle for full federal recognition – a quest that has become one of the most complex and contentious identity debates in modern America.
The Lumbee, numbering over 60,000, are the largest Indigenous tribe east of the Mississippi River without full federal acknowledgment. Their story is not one of recent emergence but of deep roots in the region, tracing ancestry back to the diverse Indigenous populations who inhabited the area long before European contact, including remnants of the Cheraw and Siouan-speaking tribes. Unlike many other tribes, the Lumbee were never forcibly removed to Indian Territory, instead maintaining their land base and cultural continuity through centuries of colonial expansion, slavery, and Jim Crow segregation.
This unique history has shaped their identity, often described by outsiders as a "tri-racial isolate" – a community of Native Americans, African Americans, and Europeans who, through intermarriage and shared experience, forged a distinct culture. However, many Lumbee reject this term, viewing it as an academic construct that diminishes their inherent Indigenous identity. For them, Lumbee is not a mixture, but a distinct peoplehood, honed by generations of self-governance and community solidarity in the face of external pressures.
The Weight of Recognition: A Double-Edged Sword
The core of the Lumbee identity debate revolves around federal recognition. For the Lumbee, it’s more than just a title; it represents justice, sovereignty, and access to crucial federal programs for healthcare, education, housing, and economic development that are available to other federally recognized tribes. It’s about being fully seen and acknowledged by the nation they have always been a part of.
Their journey for federal acknowledgment began over a century ago. In 1887, the state recognized them as "Croatan Indians," later changing their designation several times before officially recognizing them as the "Lumbee" in 1953. In 1956, after decades of lobbying, Congress passed the Lumbee Act, which acknowledged them as "the Lumbee Indians of North Carolina." However, this act contained a critical, and to many, a cruel caveat: it explicitly denied them the benefits of federal recognition, stating that nothing in the act "shall make such Indians eligible for any services performed by the United States for Indians because of their status as Indians." This became known as the "Cherokee Exception" or the "Lumbee Termination Act," a legislative compromise that left them in a paradoxical limbo – recognized by name, but denied the substance of that recognition.
"The 1956 Act was a slap in the face," says Dr. Malinda Maynor Lowery, a Lumbee historian and professor at Emory University. "It acknowledged our existence but simultaneously handcuffed our ability to access resources and exercise the full scope of self-determination that other tribes enjoy. It was a partial recognition designed to prevent full recognition."
The Cherokee Opposition: A Fierce Protector of Sovereignty
The primary and most vocal opposition to full Lumbee federal recognition comes from the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI), based in Cherokee, North Carolina. The EBCI, a federally recognized tribe with its own casino operations, has historically argued that the Lumbee lack a continuous, distinct Indigenous cultural identity separate from their mixed ancestry, and that their claims to Indigenous heritage are "fraudulent" or at best, tenuous.
Principal Chief Richard Sneed of the EBCI has consistently stated their position: "We are not opposed to people claiming their heritage. Our opposition is to a group being federally recognized as an Indian tribe when they do not meet the criteria, particularly when it impacts the resources and the sovereignty of existing federally recognized tribes." The EBCI’s concerns are multi-faceted:
- Dilution of Resources: They argue that federal funding for Indigenous programs is finite, and adding a tribe the size of the Lumbee would significantly dilute resources for existing federally recognized tribes.
- Sovereignty and Identity: The EBCI maintains that their own unique Cherokee identity, rooted in specific language, traditions, and historical continuity, would be undermined if groups with less verifiable historical ties to specific Indigenous nations were granted federal recognition. They are particularly wary of what they perceive as "paper tribes" or groups whose claims are based more on self-identification than on documented historical and cultural continuity.
- Gaming Revenue: A significant, though often unstated, concern for the EBCI is the potential for the Lumbee to establish their own gaming operations if fully recognized. This would introduce direct competition to the EBCI’s highly successful Harrah’s Cherokee Casino Resort, a vital economic engine for their nation.
This fierce opposition from another prominent North Carolina tribe adds layers of complexity, turning what might seem like a straightforward claim for justice into an internecine struggle within the broader Indigenous landscape.
Beyond the Legal Battle: Cultural Resilience and Self-Determination
Despite the lack of full federal recognition, the Lumbee have thrived as a community. Their identity is not solely defined by federal status but by a vibrant cultural life, strong kinship ties, and a deep connection to their ancestral lands along the Lumber River. They have built their own institutions, most notably the University of North Carolina at Pembroke (UNCP), founded in 1887 as the Croatan Normal School for the education of Indian children. UNCP stands as a powerful testament to Lumbee self-determination and their unwavering commitment to education and community uplift.
"Our identity isn’t given to us by Washington, D.C.," says Harvey Godwin Jr., former Chairman of the Lumbee Tribe of North Carolina. "It’s in our blood, in our land, in our families, in our church, in our university. We are Lumbee because we have always been Lumbee. But federal recognition would simply mean the United States finally acknowledges what we already know to be true."
The Lumbee community actively preserves its culture through powwows, language revitalization efforts (though no distinct Lumbee language is spoken today, efforts focus on ancestral Siouan languages), storytelling, and traditional arts. Their annual Lumbee Homecoming festival draws thousands, celebrating community, kinship, and enduring pride.
The Path Forward: Legislative Hurdles and Enduring Hope
For decades, various bills have been introduced in Congress to grant the Lumbee full federal recognition, only to be stalled or defeated, often due to the "Cherokee Exception" or opposition from the EBCI. The arguments remain largely the same, but the Lumbee continue to press their case with renewed vigor.
In recent years, there has been increasing bipartisan support for Lumbee recognition. Lawmakers from both sides of the aisle have recognized the historical injustice and the unique position of the tribe. Advocates point to the sheer size of the Lumbee population, their long history of state recognition, and their established governance structures as compelling evidence for their legitimacy.
The debate over Lumbee identity is a microcosm of broader issues in Native American affairs: the complexities of defining "Indianness," the ongoing legacy of colonialism, the economic stakes of tribal sovereignty, and the inherent tension between self-determination and federal bureaucracy.
For the Lumbee, the fight is far from over. It is a quest not just for legal status, but for full dignity and recognition of a people who have steadfastly maintained their identity against overwhelming odds. As the sun sets over the cypress swamps of Robeson County, the Lumbee continue their unfinished quest, a testament to a spirit that refuses to be diminished, awaiting the day when the nation fully acknowledges their rightful place among its Indigenous peoples.
