A Century of Unyielding Spirit: Native Americans’ Enduring Journey in the 20th Century
The dawn of the 20th century cast a long shadow over Native American communities across the United States. Decades of westward expansion, broken treaties, forced removals, and the devastating Wounded Knee Massacre of 1890 had left Indigenous peoples dispossessed, demoralized, and clinging to fragmented identities. Yet, the century that followed would not be one of quiet capitulation, but rather a tumultuous, often brutal, and ultimately triumphant journey of resilience, resistance, and the relentless pursuit of self-determination. From the depths of forced assimilation to the vibrant resurgence of sovereign nations, the 20th century witnessed a profound transformation in Native American life, redefining their place in the American mosaic.
At the turn of the century, federal policy remained firmly entrenched in the belief that the "Indian problem" could only be solved through assimilation. The Dawes Allotment Act of 1887, still actively dismembering tribal land bases, aimed to break communal land ownership and transform Native Americans into individual landowning farmers, thereby dissolving tribal structures. "Kill the Indian, save the man," declared Richard Henry Pratt, founder of the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, encapsulating the philosophy behind the notorious boarding school system. Thousands of Native children were forcibly removed from their families and cultures, prohibited from speaking their languages, practicing their religions, or wearing traditional clothing. This era, often described as a cultural genocide, sought to erase Indigenous identity, replacing it with Euro-American values and customs.
The dehumanizing conditions and failed promises of these policies were starkly exposed by the 1928 Meriam Report, "The Problem of Indian Administration." This groundbreaking study, commissioned by the Secretary of the Interior, detailed the poverty, disease, and social disorganization rampant on reservations, directly attributing these failures to federal policies, particularly the allotment system and the boarding schools. The report’s damning findings served as a critical turning point, paving the way for a dramatic shift in federal Indian policy during the New Deal era.
Under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, and spearheaded by Commissioner of Indian Affairs John Collier, the Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) of 1934 marked a radical departure. Collier, a staunch critic of the assimilationist policies, aimed to reverse the Dawes Act by halting allotment, encouraging tribes to adopt constitutional governments, and promoting cultural preservation. The IRA offered tribes the opportunity to rebuild their land bases and establish self-governance. While revolutionary, the IRA was not without its critics; some tribes resisted the imposition of federal-style constitutions, viewing them as another form of external control. Despite its complexities, the IRA laid crucial groundwork for modern tribal sovereignty, recognizing the inherent right of tribes to govern themselves.
The onset of World War II presented another complex chapter. Native Americans, despite facing systemic discrimination and often not even being recognized as full citizens until 1924, answered the call to arms in disproportionate numbers. Their service, often distinguished, highlighted a paradox: fighting for democracy abroad while struggling for basic rights at home. The most famous example is the Navajo Code Talkers, who developed an unbreakable code based on their unwritten language, playing a crucial role in Allied victories in the Pacific. Their story, a testament to the strength and strategic value of Indigenous languages, became a symbol of Native American patriotism and resilience. As one Code Talker, Chester Nez, later recounted, "The enemy never understood us. They never did figure out what we were saying."
However, the post-war period ushered in another devastating policy shift: "Termination" and "Relocation." Influenced by a desire to reduce federal spending and integrate Native Americans fully into mainstream society, the government enacted policies in the 1950s that sought to terminate the federal recognition of tribes, ending their special relationship with the U.S. government and eliminating services. Over 100 tribes were terminated, leading to the loss of millions of acres of tribal land, the dissolution of tribal governments, and widespread poverty. Simultaneously, the "Relocation Program" encouraged Native Americans to leave reservations for urban centers, promising jobs and housing. While some found opportunities, many faced discrimination, unemployment, and cultural alienation, forming new, often struggling, urban Indian communities.
The 1960s and 70s, a period of profound social upheaval and civil rights activism, saw the emergence of the "Red Power" movement. Inspired by the African American Civil Rights Movement, Native Americans began to actively and militantly demand their rights, land, and sovereignty. Organizations like the American Indian Movement (AIM), founded in 1968, brought national attention to Indigenous issues through direct action and protests. The occupation of Alcatraz Island from 1969 to 1971 by "Indians of All Tribes" symbolized a powerful reclamation of agency, asserting treaty rights and demanding a return of federal lands. Russell Means, a prominent AIM leader, declared, "We are not a vanishing race. We are not a conquered people. We are here, and we intend to stay."
This era of activism culminated in historic events such as the 1972 Trail of Broken Treaties march on Washington D.C., which resulted in the occupation of the Bureau of Indian Affairs building, and the 1973 Wounded Knee occupation, a 71-day standoff between AIM members and federal authorities that brought the grievances of the Oglala Lakota and Native Americans nationwide to the global stage. These actions, while controversial, forced the federal government to listen and ultimately led to a pivotal policy shift towards "self-determination."
The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975 was a landmark piece of legislation that formally ended the termination era. It allowed tribes to take control of their own federal programs, manage their own schools, and assert greater control over their land and resources. This act empowered tribes to rebuild their institutions, revitalize their cultures, and develop their economies. The late 20th century witnessed a remarkable cultural resurgence, with the revival of Native languages, traditional ceremonies, and artistic expressions. Legislation like the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 mandated the return of ancestral remains and sacred objects from museums and federal agencies, a powerful act of healing and cultural restoration.
Economically, the latter part of the century saw the rise of Indian gaming. Following the Supreme Court’s 1987 California v. Cabazon Band of Mission Indians decision and the subsequent Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988, many tribes, particularly those with limited other economic opportunities, established casinos. Gaming revenues, while not universally distributed and often subject to intense debate, provided a vital source of income for many tribes, funding education, healthcare, infrastructure, and cultural programs, allowing them to exercise their sovereignty in tangible ways.
By the close of the 20th century, Native American nations had transformed from being subjects of federal policy into active, sovereign partners in the American federal system. While significant challenges remained—poverty, inadequate healthcare, environmental justice issues, and ongoing struggles for land and water rights—the century had undeniably been one of remarkable progress. The relentless spirit of Native Americans, honed through centuries of adversity, had not only endured but had flourished. From the brink of cultural annihilation, Indigenous peoples had reclaimed their narratives, asserted their rights, and begun the arduous, yet inspiring, work of rebuilding their nations for future generations, forever demonstrating that their cultures and sovereignty were not relics of the past, but living, evolving forces shaping the future.
