Akwesasne’s Enduring Battle: Reclaiming Sacred Lands from a Toxic Legacy
AKWESASNE, MOHAWK TERRITORY – On the tranquil banks of the St. Lawrence River, where the waters flow broad and deep, lies Akwesasne, the traditional territory of the Mohawk Nation. For generations, this land and its life-giving river were the heart of their culture, providing sustenance, spiritual connection, and a way of life intrinsically tied to the natural world. But beneath the surface of this serene landscape, a hidden enemy festered for decades, an insidious legacy of industrial pollution that threatened to sever the very ties that bind the Mohawk people to their ancestral home.
Akwesasne, straddling the U.S.-Canada border and the states of New York and the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, found itself at the epicenter of one of North America’s most devastating environmental crises. From the 1950s through the 1970s, industrial giants – most notably the Reynolds Metals Company (now Alcoa/Arconic), the General Motors Corporation, and the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) – operated manufacturing plants upstream and adjacent to the community. Their operations, largely unregulated by today’s standards, discharged vast quantities of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), fluoride, heavy metals, and other hazardous chemicals directly into the St. Lawrence River and surrounding lands.
The impact was catastrophic. PCBs, dubbed "forever chemicals" for their persistence in the environment, accumulated in the river’s sediment, fish, wildlife, and ultimately, in the bodies of the Akwesasne community members who relied on traditional foods. Fish advisories became common, then outright bans on consumption. The once-vibrant practice of fishing, a cornerstone of Mohawk identity and diet, became a perilous gamble. Muskrats, eels, and other animals vital to their culture became toxic. Gardens yielded contaminated crops. Health problems, from higher rates of cancer to developmental issues in children, began to emerge, casting a long, dark shadow over the community.
"For us, this wasn’t just about environmental damage; it was an attack on our very way of life, on our sovereignty, on our future," says Henry Lickers, Environmental Science Officer for the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne, reflecting on the early days of discovery. "Our elders remember a time when the river was clean, when our children could swim and fish without fear. That was stolen from us."
The full extent of the contamination became alarmingly clear in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Faced with undeniable evidence of widespread pollution and its devastating effects, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne, through the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe (SRMT) and the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne (MCA), began a determined and protracted battle for justice, remediation, and restoration. It was a fight that would pit a relatively small Indigenous community against some of the world’s largest corporations and complex governmental bureaucracies.
The Fight for Justice: Superfund and Sovereignty
The journey to cleanup was anything but straightforward. It required immense community organizing, scientific data collection, and relentless advocacy. Akwesasne’s leaders, scientists, and lawyers worked tirelessly to document the pollution, link it to specific industries, and push for accountability. Their efforts led to the designation of the primary industrial sites as Superfund sites by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) – the General Motors-Massena (GM) site, the Alcoa-Massena site, and the Reynolds Metals (now Arconic) site.
The Superfund program, established in 1980, provides a mechanism for cleaning up the nation’s most hazardous waste sites. However, the involvement of a sovereign Indigenous nation complicated matters. The Mohawk people insisted on a co-management role, recognizing that effective remediation could only happen with their direct input, given their intimate knowledge of the land and their unique cultural connection to it.
"We couldn’t just stand by and let others decide the fate of our homeland," states a former environmental director for the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe. "We had to be at the table, ensuring that the cleanup respected our traditional knowledge, addressed our health concerns, and ultimately aimed for full restoration, not just containment."
This insistence on sovereignty and self-determination was crucial. Both the Saint Regis Mohawk Tribe Environment Division and the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne Environment Program became central players, developing their own environmental expertise, conducting independent studies, and collaborating with (and sometimes challenging) the EPA and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC). Their involvement ensured that the cleanup plans were culturally appropriate and prioritized the community’s long-term well-being.
The Herculean Task of Remediation
The scale of the cleanup efforts at Akwesasne has been monumental. At the GM-Massena site, which released millions of pounds of PCBs into the St. Lawrence and Raquette Rivers, the remediation involved extensive dredging of contaminated river sediments, the construction of a massive containment cell for contaminated soils, and ongoing groundwater treatment. This work began in earnest in the early 2000s and has continued for over two decades. The site covers hundreds of acres and includes riverine, wetland, and upland areas.
Similarly, at the Alcoa-Massena and Reynolds Metals sites, a complex array of techniques has been employed to address PCB and fluoride contamination. This included the removal of vast quantities of contaminated soil, the capping of contaminated areas to prevent further migration of pollutants, and the ongoing monitoring of groundwater and surface water. The costs have run into the billions of dollars, borne largely by the responsible parties under EPA oversight.
"Imagine removing enough contaminated material to fill a football stadium many times over, all while trying to minimize further environmental disruption," explains a project manager involved in the cleanup. "It’s a delicate balance, and the long-term monitoring required is immense."
One of the most significant challenges has been the sheer persistence of PCBs. Even after decades of cleanup, traces remain, and the slow natural recovery of the ecosystem requires continuous vigilance. The community remains actively involved in monitoring efforts, ensuring that the work is effective and that the responsible parties continue to meet their obligations.
Beyond the Science: Cultural Healing and Resilience
While the scientific and engineering aspects of the cleanup are staggering, the deeper story of Akwesasne is one of profound cultural resilience and a relentless pursuit of healing. The pollution didn’t just contaminate the land; it wounded the spirit of the people. The loss of traditional foods, the fear for their children’s health, and the disruption of ceremonies connected to the natural world created deep trauma.
"Our relationship with the land is not just economic; it’s spiritual," says a Mohawk elder. "The Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen, our Thanksgiving Address, reminds us to give thanks for all parts of creation. When the land is sick, we are sick."
Yet, even in the face of such adversity, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne have demonstrated remarkable strength. They have established robust environmental departments, educated their youth about environmental stewardship, and continued to practice cultural traditions where possible, adapting to the changed landscape. Programs to educate community members about safe consumption of local foods, while also advocating for continued cleanup, are vital.
There are tangible signs of progress and hope. As a direct result of the cleanup efforts, water quality has improved significantly in many areas. Certain fish species are showing lower levels of contaminants, and some wildlife, like muskrats, are slowly making a comeback in previously devastated areas. The very presence of these animals, once symbols of contamination, now serves as powerful indicators of healing.
"Seeing a healthy muskrat again, or knowing that certain fish are safer to eat – these are small victories, but they mean the world to us," shares a young Mohawk mother. "It’s not just about cleaning up the past; it’s about giving our children a future where they can connect with this land as our ancestors did."
The Path Forward: Perpetual Stewardship
The environmental cleanup at Akwesasne is not a finished chapter; it is an ongoing saga of monitoring, maintenance, and perpetual stewardship. The community understands that true restoration is a generational endeavor. They continue to advocate for the responsible parties to fulfill their long-term obligations, and they remain vigilant in monitoring the health of their land and people.
The Akwesasne experience serves as a powerful lesson for the world. It underscores the devastating consequences of industrial negligence but also highlights the extraordinary resilience and determination of Indigenous communities in protecting their ancestral lands. It demonstrates that true environmental justice requires not only scientific remediation but also the recognition of Indigenous sovereignty, cultural values, and traditional ecological knowledge.
As the St. Lawrence River continues its timeless flow past Akwesasne, it carries with it not just the remnants of a toxic past, but also the powerful current of a people’s unwavering commitment to healing their homeland, ensuring that the sacred connection between the Mohawk Nation and Akwesasne endures for generations to come. Their battle for a cleaner environment is a testament to the enduring spirit of a people determined to reclaim their future, one remediated acre at a time.
