Echoes of Return: The Long Road to Repatriation of Native American Ancestors and Artifacts
It’s a journey not just of objects, but of souls. From dimly lit museum storage rooms and the sterile environments of university labs, a steady stream of Native American ancestral remains, sacred objects, and cultural patrimony is slowly, meticulously making its way home. This movement, known as repatriation, is more than just the return of physical items; it is a profound act of reconciliation, healing, and cultural revitalization, seeking to mend wounds inflicted over centuries of conquest, dispossession, and systematic cultural erasure.
For generations, Native American communities watched in anguish as their ancestors’ graves were desecrated, their ceremonial items seized, and their cultural treasures plundered. These were not mere "artifacts" in the Western sense, but living parts of their heritage, imbued with spirit, history, and profound significance. They were collected by archaeologists, anthropologists, soldiers, and grave robbers, often under the guise of scientific study or the grim belief that Indigenous cultures were "vanishing" and needed to be preserved—even if that meant taking them by force or deception.
A History of Dispossession
The scale of this historical injustice is staggering. By the mid-20th century, an estimated 200,000 to 300,000 Native American human remains were held in federal agencies, museums, universities, and private collections across the United States. Along with them were countless funerary objects, sacred items, and objects of cultural patrimony—items deemed inalienable from the community, central to its identity and continuity.
These collections often originated from disturbing practices. Early expeditions routinely excavated burial sites without consent, sometimes even directly from battlefields or recently abandoned villages. Anthropologists and ethnographers, while contributing to the understanding of Indigenous cultures, also participated in collecting practices that today would be considered unethical, buying or "exchanging" sacred items from individuals who had no right to alienate them from their communities. The infamous practice of collecting "death masks" and even living individuals’ remains for study further highlights the dehumanization inherent in some of these pursuits.
For Native peoples, this was not just a loss of property, but a spiritual violation. The disruption of ancestral resting places, the dismemberment of families, and the removal of items essential for spiritual practice created a profound void and an ongoing trauma. As Shannon Keller O’Loughlin, CEO and attorney for the Association on American Indian Affairs, stated, "Our ancestors are not specimens. Our sacred objects are not curiosities. They are living parts of our heritage, and their return is essential for our healing."
The Dawn of Repatriation: NAGPRA
The turning point came with decades of tireless advocacy by Native American tribes and their allies. Their efforts culminated in the passage of the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) in 1990. This landmark federal law requires federal agencies and museums that receive federal funding to inventory their collections, consult with Native American tribes, and, upon request, repatriate or return Native American human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and objects of cultural patrimony to lineal descendants or culturally affiliated Native American tribes.
NAGPRA was revolutionary, shifting the legal and ethical landscape from one of museum ownership to one of Indigenous rights. It recognized the deep spiritual connection Native peoples have to their ancestors and cultural heritage, legally affirming their right to reclaim what was taken. However, NAGPRA is not without its limitations. It only applies to federal institutions and those receiving federal funds, leaving private collections and non-federally funded museums largely untouched. The process itself can be slow, complex, and underfunded, often requiring tribes to expend significant resources to prove cultural affiliation or lineal descent.
Despite these challenges, NAGPRA has facilitated the return of tens of thousands of ancestors and hundreds of thousands of items. The Smithsonian Institution, for instance, which held one of the largest collections of Native American human remains (around 18,600 at the time of NAGPRA’s passage), has been at the forefront of repatriation efforts, establishing a dedicated office and working closely with tribes.
The Process: A Journey of Discovery and Negotiation
The repatriation process is rarely straightforward. It begins with museums and agencies compiling detailed inventories of their Native American collections. These inventories are then shared with tribes, who review them for potential claims. Once a claim is made, consultation begins. This phase is crucial, involving dialogue, historical research, and often, scientific analysis to establish cultural affiliation.
"It’s about building relationships and trust," explains Dr. Joallyn Archambault (Hunkpapa Lakota), a former director of the American Indian Program at the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution. "Museums are learning to see tribes not as claimants, but as partners and rightful custodians of their heritage."
One of the most complex and high-profile NAGPRA cases involved the "Kennewick Man" (known as "Ancient One" by many tribes), a 9,000-year-old skeleton discovered in Washington State in 1996. The discovery sparked a fierce legal battle between scientists, who argued for the right to study the ancient remains, and a coalition of Columbia Plateau tribes, who asserted their cultural affiliation and right to rebury their ancestor. After decades of scientific study and legal challenges, including a landmark court decision, the remains were finally repatriated to the claimant tribes in 2017, a testament to the perseverance of Indigenous communities and the evolving understanding of NAGPRA.
Beyond the major institutions, smaller universities and historical societies are also engaging in repatriation. Pitzer College in California, for example, proactively returned over 100 sacred and ceremonial objects to the Hupa, Yurok, and Karuk tribes in 2019, demonstrating a commitment beyond mere legal compliance. This proactive approach, often termed "reconciliation through repatriation," is increasingly seen as the ethical standard.
The Museum’s Evolving Role
For many years, museums saw themselves as neutral custodians of global heritage, their collections serving the public good through research and display. The idea of returning items, particularly those deemed scientifically or historically significant, was often met with resistance, sometimes rooted in a genuine fear of emptying their collections or a belief in the "universal" value of these objects.
However, the discourse has shifted profoundly. Many museum professionals now acknowledge the colonial legacies embedded in their collections and the ethical imperative to right historical wrongs. They are moving towards partnerships with Indigenous communities, not just on repatriation, but on exhibition development, cultural programming, and shared stewardship.
"We recognize that these objects hold immeasurable cultural and spiritual value for their originating communities," stated a prominent museum director during a repatriation ceremony. "Our role is no longer solely about collecting and displaying, but about facilitating return, fostering respect, and learning from the cultures we once sought to merely study." This shift represents a fundamental rethinking of the museum’s purpose, from a repository of taken goods to a facilitator of cultural resurgence.
Beyond U.S. Borders: The Global Movement
While NAGPRA specifically addresses collections within the United States, the movement for repatriation is global. Indigenous peoples worldwide, from the Māori of New Zealand to the Aboriginal peoples of Australia, are advocating for the return of their ancestors and cultural heritage from institutions in Europe and other former colonial powers.
Germany, for instance, has been working with various Native American tribes to return ancestral remains held in its museums, acknowledging the problematic acquisition histories. Similarly, institutions in the United Kingdom, France, and other nations are facing increasing pressure to address their vast collections of Indigenous human remains and cultural objects. The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), adopted in 2007, further strengthens the international legal framework for repatriation, asserting Indigenous peoples’ right to "maintain, protect, and develop the past, present and future manifestations of their cultures."
The Road Ahead: Challenges and Hopes
Despite significant progress, the journey of repatriation is far from over. Hundreds of thousands of Native American human remains and countless cultural objects still reside in museum basements, university vaults, and private collections.
Key challenges remain:
- Unidentified Remains: Many remains lack sufficient documentation to definitively link them to a specific tribe, making cultural affiliation difficult to prove under NAGPRA.
- Private Collections: NAGPRA does not apply to private collectors, who may hold vast numbers of items. Ethical persuasion and public pressure are often the only tools available.
- Funding and Resources: Tribes often lack the financial and staff resources to conduct extensive research, travel for consultations, and cover the costs of reburial ceremonies.
- International Complexity: Repatriating items from overseas institutions involves navigating different legal systems and diplomatic channels.
Yet, the momentum for repatriation continues to build. The growing awareness of historical injustices, the increasing power of Indigenous advocacy, and the evolving ethical standards of cultural institutions offer hope. Each return is a powerful affirmation of identity and resilience. It allows communities to properly honor their dead, resume sacred ceremonies, and pass on traditions that were nearly severed.
As a tribal elder once remarked during a repatriation ceremony, holding a recovered ceremonial pipe, "This is not just wood and stone. This is our prayer. This is our history. This is our future. Now, it is home." The echoes of return reverberate through generations, not just as a legal victory, but as a spiritual homecoming, a step towards a more just and reconciled future for Native American peoples.
