The Thorn in Zion’s Side: Mormon Polygamy and America’s Enduring Struggle with Religious Freedom
The arid landscapes of the American West, particularly the towering red rock canyons and vast salt flats of Utah, hold a history as rugged and unyielding as the terrain itself. It is a history inextricably linked to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, or the Mormons, and a practice that for decades defined their very existence: polygamy. More than a mere footnote, plural marriage was a central tenet, a divine command that set them against the moral sensibilities of 19th-century America, sparking a conflict over religious freedom, federal authority, and the very definition of family that reverberates even today.
To understand Mormon polygamy, one must first grasp its genesis, shrouded in both divine revelation and human struggle. The practice, formally known as "plural marriage," was introduced by the church’s founder, Joseph Smith, in the early 1840s in Nauvoo, Illinois. Smith claimed to have received a revelation from God, later canonized as Doctrine and Covenants Section 132, commanding the practice. This revelation, received as early as 1831 but not publicly announced until 1852, taught that plural marriage was essential for exaltation in the afterlife, for raising up a righteous posterity, and for restoring ancient biblical practices.
The theological underpinnings were profound. Mormons believed that eternal life was predicated on eternal families, and that marrying multiple wives could lead to a greater "increase" in the spirit world, ultimately allowing men to become "gods" in their own right, presiding over vast celestial kingdoms. As Brigham Young, Smith’s successor and the driving force behind the Mormon migration to Utah, famously declared, "The only men who become Gods, even the Sons of God, are those who enter into polygamy." This was not a matter of carnal desire, its proponents argued, but a sacred duty, a test of faith, and a path to ultimate salvation.
However, the practice was introduced with immense secrecy, even among church members. Many early converts, particularly women, found the concept deeply unsettling and contrary to their Christian upbringing. Emma Smith, Joseph Smith’s first wife, famously struggled with and resisted the practice, though historical accounts differ on the extent of her eventual acceptance. The secrecy fostered rumors and accusations, contributing to the persecution that ultimately led to Smith’s assassination in 1844 and the subsequent exodus of the Saints from Nauvoo.
The epic westward migration, led by Brigham Young, was in large part driven by the desire to find a sanctuary where the Saints could practice their religion, including plural marriage, unmolested. In the isolation of the Great Salt Lake Valley, they established their "Kingdom of God," a theocratic society where plural marriage became an open, if still controversial, fixture. By the late 19th century, it’s estimated that between 20-30% of Mormon families practiced polygamy, with some prominent leaders having dozens of wives and hundreds of children.
The public announcement of plural marriage in 1852 sent shockwaves across the United States. To mainstream Victorian society, polygamy was an anathema, a "relic of barbarism" alongside slavery, as often decried by Republican politicians. It was seen as an affront to Christian morality, a degradation of women, and a threat to the nuclear family unit that formed the bedrock of American society. The federal government swiftly moved to suppress it.
The conflict escalated into a protracted legal and social war. In 1862, Congress passed the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act, outlawing polygamy in the territories, but it was largely unenforced. The decisive blow came with the landmark Supreme Court case Reynolds v. United States in 1879. George Reynolds, a secretary to Brigham Young, was convicted of bigamy, and his appeal reached the highest court. The Court, in a unanimous decision, upheld the conviction, drawing a crucial distinction: "Congress was deprived of all legislative power over mere opinion, but was left free to reach actions which were in violation of social duties or subversive of good order." In essence, while the First Amendment protected religious belief, it did not protect all religious practices if those practices were deemed harmful to the public good.
This ruling opened the floodgates for more aggressive federal action. The Edmunds Act of 1882 made polygamy a felony, disenfranchised polygamists, and barred them from holding public office or serving on juries. The Edmunds-Tucker Act of 1887 went even further, disincorporating the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, seizing its assets (with a few exceptions like temples), and abolishing women’s suffrage in Utah (which had been granted by the territory in 1870, partly to show that Mormon women were not oppressed). Federal marshals launched "the Raid," actively hunting down polygamist men, leading many to go "underground" or flee to Mexico and Canada. Homes were broken into, families separated, and the church faced existential threat.
The pressure was immense. Utah’s statehood, a long-held aspiration, was continually denied due to the polygamy issue. The church, facing legal decimation and the imprisonment of its leaders, found itself at a crossroads. In 1890, Wilford Woodruff, the fourth President of the Church, issued the "Manifesto," a carefully worded statement that advised Latter-day Saints to "refrain from contracting any marriage forbidden by the law of the land." While not explicitly disavowing past plural marriages, it effectively ended the authorization of new ones.
The transition was not immediate or without internal struggle. Some plural marriages continued in secret for years, and a second Manifesto was issued in 1904 by President Joseph F. Smith, explicitly excommunicating those who continued to enter into new plural marriages. This marked the definitive end of authorized plural marriage by the mainstream Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It was a pragmatic decision, born of necessity, but presented as a new revelation, demonstrating the church’s ability to adapt its divine commands to the changing demands of the temporal world.
The abandonment of polygamy was a profound turning point, paving the way for Utah’s statehood in 1896 and the eventual integration of the Latter-day Saints into American society. However, the legacy of plural marriage proved tenacious. A number of splinter groups, often referred to as "fundamentalist Mormons," refused to abandon the practice, believing the church had strayed from God’s true commands. These groups, such as the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS), continue to practice polygamy in isolated communities, primarily in the American Southwest and Mexico, often attracting negative media attention for issues like child marriage and abuse. The mainstream church unequivocally condemns these groups and their practices.
Today, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints firmly teaches and practices monogamous marriage, affirming that "marriage between a man and a woman is ordained of God." They acknowledge their polygamous past as a complex, difficult, but formative chapter of their history. It is seen as a time when God commanded a unique practice for specific purposes, which has since been superseded. This historical context is often taught with sensitivity, emphasizing the faith and sacrifice of those who lived it, while distancing the modern church from its current practice.
Yet, the "thorn in Zion’s side" persists in the popular imagination. For many outside observers, the image of Mormonism is still colored by its polygamous past, often sensationalized and misunderstood. It serves as a potent reminder of the ongoing tension between religious freedom and societal norms, between divine command and the law of the land. The story of Mormon polygamy is not just a tale of one religious group; it is a profound American saga, illustrating the complexities of nation-building, the evolution of religious belief, and the enduring struggle to define what is sacred and what is permissible in a pluralistic society. It is a testament to both the radical nature of faith and the powerful forces of assimilation that ultimately shaped a unique American identity.
